Heterostructure germanium tandem junction solar cell

ABSTRACT

A photovoltaic device that includes an upper cell that absorbs a first range of wavelengths of light and a bottom cell that absorbs a second range of wavelengths of light. The bottom cell includes a heterojunction comprising a crystalline germanium containing (Ge) layer. At least one surface of the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer is in contact with a silicon (Si) containing layer having a larger band gap than the crystalline (Ge) containing layer.

BACKGROUND

The present disclosure relates to photovoltaic devices, and moreparticularly to photovoltaic devices such as, for example, solar cells.

A photovoltaic device is a device that converts the energy of incidentphotons to electromotive force (e.m.f.). Typical photovoltaic devicesinclude solar cells, which are configured to convert the energy in theelectromagnetic radiation from the Sun to electric energy. Each photonhas an energy given by the formula E=hν, in which the energy E is equalto the product of the Plank constant h and the frequency ν of theelectromagnetic radiation associated with the photon.

BRIEF SUMMARY

In one embodiment, a photovoltaic device is provided that includes anupper cell that absorbs a first range of wavelengths of light and abottom cell that absorbs a second range of wavelengths of light. Thebottom cell includes a heterojunction including a crystalline germaniumcontaining (Ge) layer. At least one surface of the crystalline germanium(Ge) containing layer is in contact with a silicon (Si) containing layerhaving a larger band gap than the crystalline (Ge) containing layer.

In another aspect, a method of forming a photovoltaic device is providedthat includes forming a first cell comprising a crystalline germanium(Ge) containing layer. The crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layerof the first cell includes at least one surface that is in contact witha silicon (Si) containing layer. The silicon (Si) containing layertypically has a larger band gap than the crystalline germanium (Ge)containing layer. In one embodiment, the method forming at least asecond cell on the first cell, wherein the second cell is positioned sothat a light enters the second cell before reaching the first cell.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The following detailed description, given by way of example and notintended to limit the disclosure solely thereto, will best beappreciated in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein likereference numerals denote like elements and parts, in which:

FIG. 1A is a side cross-sectional view of a photovoltaic deviceincluding at least one silicon (Si) containing upper cell and agermanium (Ge) containing bottom cell, in which the bottom cell includesa heterojunction of a crystalline germanium containing (Ge) nanowire anda silicon (Si) containing layer, in accordance with one embodiment ofthe present disclosure.

FIG. 1B is a side cross-sectional view across section line B-B of thephotovoltaic device that is depicted in FIG. 1A in which the upper cellis a single p-i-n solar cell comprised of amorphous hydrogenated silicon(Si), in accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 1C is a side cross-sectional view across section line B-B of thephotovoltaic device that is depicted in FIG. 1A, in which the upper cellcomprises a first p-i-n solar cell comprised of hydrogenatedmicrocrystalline silicon, a second p-i-n solar cell comprised ofhydrogenated amorphous silicon germanium (SiGe), and a third p-i-n solarcell comprised of hydrogenated amorphous silicon (Si), in accordancewith one embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 2A is a side cross-sectional view of a photovoltaic deviceincluding a cadmium (Cd) containing upper cell and a germanium (Ge)containing bottom cell, in which the bottom cell includes aheterojunction of a crystalline germanium containing (Ge) nanowire and asilicon (Si) containing layer, in accordance with one embodiment of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 2B is a side cross-sectional view across section line B-B of thephotovoltaic device that is depicted in FIG. 2A, in accordance with oneembodiment of the present disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Detailed embodiments of the present disclosure are described herein;however, it is to be understood that the disclosed embodiments aremerely illustrative of the structures and methods disclosed herein. Inaddition, each of the examples given in connection with the variousembodiments of the disclosure is intended to be illustrative, and notrestrictive. Further, the figures are not necessarily to scale, somefeatures may be exaggerated to show details of particular components.Further, when a particular feature, structure, or characteristic isdescribed in connection with an embodiment, it is submitted that it iswithin the knowledge of one skilled in the art to affect such feature,structure, or characteristic in connection with other embodimentswhether or not explicitly described. For purposes of the descriptionhereinafter, the terms “upper”, “lower”, “vertical”, “horizontal”,“top”, “bottom”, and derivatives thereof shall relate to the structuresdisclosed herein, as they are oriented in the drawing figures.

The term “direct contact” means that a first element, such as a firststructure, and a second element, such as a second structure, areconnected without and intermediate conducting, insulating orsemiconductor layers at the interface of the two elements. The terms“overlying”, “atop”, “positioned on” or “positioned atop” means that afirst element, such as a first structure, and a second element, such asa second structure, are connected without any intermediary conducting,insulating or semiconductor layers at the interface of the two elements.

In some embodiments, tandem-junction solar cells allow for efficientcollection of the solar spectrum, and may therefore be beneficial forhigh conversion efficiencies. Some examples of multiple-junction solarcells include a cell stack of hydrogenated amorphous silicon carbide(α-SiC:H)/hydrogenated amorphous silicon (α-Si:H)/hydrogenated amorphoussilicon germanium (α-SiGe:H) or a cell stack of hydrogenated amorphoussilicon (α-Si:H)/hydrogenated amorphous silicon germanium(α-SiGe:H)/hydrogenated microcrystalline silicon (μμc-Si:H). However,the bandgap of the hydrogenated amorphous silicon germanium (α-SiGe:H)or the hydrogenated microcrystalline silicon (μμc-Si:H) utilized as thebottom cell material of the aforementioned cell stacks has a lower limitwith the range of 1.0 eV to 1.1 eV. Photovoltaic devices that requirelower bandgaps may require crystalline germanium (c-Ge) substrates orhigh-quality thick (at least few microns) polycrystalline germanium(poly-Ge) layers both of which are expensive and can defy the purpose oflow-cost large-area processing intended by plasma enhanced chemicalvapor deposition (PECVD) growth of hydrogenated thin films.

In some embodiments, the structures and methods disclosed herein providea heterojunction germanium (Ge) containing bottom cell, in which asilicon (Si) containing layer having a larger bandgap is in contact withthe crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer of the heterojunctiongermanium (Ge) containing bottom cell, and the silicon (Si) containinglayer has an opposite conductivity type as the crystalline germanium(Ge) containing layer. The crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layerof the heterojunction germanium (Ge) containing bottom cell may have ananowire geometry. In some embodiments, the heterojunction emitter andback contacts of the bottom cells may be deposited at low temperaturesless than 400° C. by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD).In some embodiments, the nanowire structure of the crystalline germanium(Ge) containing layer of the bottom cell allows for efficient lighttrapping by reducing reflection. In addition, the radial collection ofcarriers in the nanowire (while light absorption is vertical) allows forefficient collection of carriers in Ge material with moderate or poorlifetime allowing the use of poly crystalline germanium (poly-Ge)instead of crystalline germanium (c-Ge).

FIGS. 1A and 1B depict one embodiment of a photovoltaic device 100including a silicon (Si) containing upper cell 35 (also referred to as asecond cell) and a germanium (Ge) containing bottom cell 25 (alsoreferred to as a first cell). The upper cell 35 absorbs a first range ofwavelengths of light and the bottom cell 25 absorbs a second range ofwavelengths of light. In a typical semiconductor, the vast majority ofthe incident photons having energies smaller than the bandgap of thesemiconductor are not absorbed in the semiconductor. In contrast, asignificant portion of photons with energies larger than that of thebandgap may be absorbed and converted to electron-hole pairs. Theportion of the photon energy consumed for electron-hole generation isclose to the bandgap energy of the semiconductor, while the excessphoton energy (approximately equal to the difference between the photonenergy and the bandgap energy) is dissipated as heat. Therefore, theconversion of light into electricity is typically most efficient forphotons having energies close to that of the bandgap energy where energyloss by heat dissipation is minimum. Therefore the combination of a widegap top cell 35 and a narrow gap bottom cell 30 may allow for a moreefficient conversion of sunlight compared to a single cell, by allowinga relatively more efficient conversion of photons with higher energiesin the top cell 35 (which would be otherwise less efficiently convertedin the bottom cell 30 due to a high thermal loss), and a relatively moreefficient conversion of photons with lower energies (the majority ofwhich are not absorbed in the top cell 35) in the bottom cell 30. In oneexample, the materials of at least the second solar cell 35 are selectedto have a bandgap in the range of 0.85 eV-1.12 eV, and the materials ofthe first solar cell 30 are selected to have a bandgap in the range of0.67 eV-1.0 eV. In another example, the materials of at least the secondsolar cell 35 are selected to have a bandgap in the range of 0.95eV-1.12 eV, and the materials of the first solar cell 30 are selected tohave a bandgap in the range of 0.67 eV-0.8 eV. The energy of a photon(hν) and the wavelength of a photon (λ) are related through the relationhν=hc/λ, where h is the Plank's constant, and c is the speed of light(the value of hc is approximately equal to 1239 eV/nm). For example, theenergy of a photon of a wavelength of 450 nm is approximately 2.8 eV. Asused herein, a “photovoltaic device” is a device, such as a solar cell,that produces free electrons-hole pairs, when exposed to radiation, suchas light, and results in the production of an electric current. Thephotovoltaic device typically includes layers of p-type conductivity andn-type conductivity that share an interface to provide a junction. The“absorption layer” of the photovoltaic device is the material thatreadily absorbs photons to generate charge carriers, i.e., freeelectrons or holes. A portion of the photovoltaic device, between thefront side and the junction is referred to as the “emitter layer”, andthe junction is referred to as the “emitter junction”. The emitter layermay be present atop the absorption layer, in which the emitter layer hasa conductivity type that is opposite the conductivity type as theabsorption layer. In one example, when the Sun's energy in the form ofphotons collects in the cell layers, electron-hole pairs are generatedin the material within the photovoltaic device. The emitter junctionprovides the required electric field for the collection of thephoto-generated holes and electrons on the p-doped and n-doped sides ofthe emitter junction, respectively. For this reason, and in thisexample, at least one p-type layer of the photovoltaic device mayprovide the absorption layer, and at least one adjacent n-type layer mayprovide the emitter layer.

In some embodiments, at least a portion of the absorption layer for thebottom cell 25 is provided by the crystalline germanium (Ge) containinglayer 10. By “crystalline” it is meant that the crystalline germanium(Ge) containing layer 10 may have either a single crystal crystallinestructure, a polycrystalline crystal structure or a multi-crystallinecrystal structure. In some embodiments, the crystalline germanium (Ge)containing layer 10 may include multiple germanium (Ge) containinglayers of single crystal crystalline structure materials andpolycrystalline crystal structure materials. In one embodiment, thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 may have a single crystalcrystalline structure. The term “single crystal crystalline structure”denotes a crystalline solid, in which the crystal lattice of the entiresample is substantially continuous and substantially unbroken to theedges of the sample, with substantially no grain boundaries. In anotherembodiment, the crystalline semiconductor material of the absorptioncrystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 is of a multi-crystallineor polycrystalline structure. Contrary to a single crystal crystallinestructure, a polycrystalline structure is a form of semiconductormaterial made up of randomly oriented crystallites and containinglarge-angle grain boundaries, twin boundaries or both. Multi-crystallineis widely referred to a polycrystalline material with large grains (ofthe order of millimeters to centimeters). Other terms used arelarge-grain polycrystalline, or large-grain multi-crystalline. The termpolycrystalline typically refers to small grains (hundreds ofnanometers, to hundreds of microns).

In some embodiments, in which the crystalline germanium (Ge) containinglayer 10 provides the absorption layer of the bottom cell 25, thecrystalline geranium (Ge) containing layer 10 may have a band gap thatranges from 0.67 eV to 1.0 eV. In another embodiment, the crystallinegermanium (Ge) containing layer 10 has a band gap that ranges from 0.67eV to 0.8 eV.

At least one surface of the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer10 is in contact with a silicon (Si) containing layer 5 having a largerband gap than the crystalline (Ge) containing layer 10, in which thesilicon (Si) containing layer 5 is a component of the emitter contact tothe bottom cell 25, i.e., first cell. The term “band gap” as used hereinmeans the difference in energy in a substance between electron orbitalsin which the electrons are not free to move, i.e., the valence band, andorbitals in which they are relatively free and will carry a current,i.e., the conduction band. To provide a smaller band gap in thecrystalline (Ge) containing layer 10 that provides the absorption layerof the bottom cell 25 (also referred to as first cell), the silicon (Si)content in the germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 is selected to be lessthan the silicon (Si) content of the silicon-containing layer 5. In someinstances, when the silicon containing layer 5 is composed of silicongermanium (SiGe), the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 maybe substantially pure germanium (Ge). By “substantially pure” it ismeant that the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 may becomposed of a base material that is 99 at. % germanium (Ge) or greater,e.g., 100 at. % germanium (Ge). The term “substantially pure” allows forthe incorporation of incidental impurities that may be introduced to thebase material during the formation process. In some embodiments, thegermanium (Ge) content of the crystalline germanium (Ge) containinglayer 10 may be 95 at. % or greater. The aforementioned at. % allow fordoping with an n-type or p-type dopant. In the embodiments, in which thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 is substantially puregermanium (Ge), the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 has aband gap that is equal to 0.67 eV. The Si content of the Ge containinglayer 10 may be constant or vary across layer 10.

In some instances, when the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 is composedof pure silicon (Si), the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10may be composed of silicon germanium (SiGe) or substantially puregermanium (Ge). In the embodiments in which the crystalline germanium(Ge) layer is composed of silicon germanium (SiGe), the germanium (Ge)content of the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 may rangefrom 10 at % to 100 at. % In another embodiment, in which thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 is composed of silicongermanium (SiGe), the germanium (Ge) content of the crystallinegermanium (Ge) containing layer 10 may range from 50 at % to 100 at %.The aforementioned atomic % allows for doping with an n-type or p-typedopants. In one embodiment, in which the crystalline germanium (Ge)containing layer 10 is silicon germanium (SiGe), the crystallinegermanium (Ge) containing layer 10 has a band gap that is ranges from0.67 eV to 1.0 eV. In another embodiment, in which the crystallinegermanium (Ge) containing layer 10 is silicon germanium (SiGe), thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 has a band gap that isranges from 0.67 eV to 0.80 eV.

The crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 is typically doped toa first conductivity type. As used herein, the term “conductivity type”denotes a semiconductor material being p-type or n-type. To provide anemitter heterojunction, the conductivity type of the crystallinegermanium (Ge) containing layer is selected to be opposite theconductivity type of the silicon (Si) containing layer 5. For example,when the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 has a firstconductivity type that is n-type, the silicon (Si) containing layer 5has a second conductivity type that is p-type. In another example, whenthe crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 has a firstconductivity type that is p-type, the silicon (Si) containing layer 5has a second conductivity type that is n-type.

As used herein, “n-type” refers to the addition of impurities thatcontributes free electrons to an intrinsic semiconductor. In a type IVsemiconductor, such as germanium (Ge) and/or silicon (Si), as employedin the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10, examples ofn-type dopants, i.e., impurities, include but are not limited to,antimony (Sb), arsenic (As) and phosphorous (P). In one embodiment, inwhich the first conductivity type of the crystalline germanium (Ge)containing layer 10 is n-type, the n-type dopant is present in aconcentration ranging from 1×10⁹ atoms/cm³ to 1×10²⁰ atoms/cm³. Inanother embodiment, in which the first conductivity type is n-type, then-type dopant is present in a concentration ranging from 1×10¹⁴atoms/cm³ to 1×10¹⁹. As used herein, “p-type” refers to the addition ofimpurities to an intrinsic semiconductor that creates deficiencies ofvalence electrons (i.e. holes). In a type IV semiconductor, such asgermanium (Ge) and/or silicon (Si), examples of p-type dopants, i.e.,impurities, include but are not limited to, boron (B), aluminum (Al),gallium (Ga) and indium (In). In one embodiment, in which thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 is p-type, the p-typedopant is present in a concentration ranging from 1×10⁹ atoms/cm³ to1×10²⁰ atoms/cm³. In another embodiment, in which the first conductivitytype is p-type, the p-type dopant is present in a concentration rangingfrom 1×10¹⁴ atoms/cm to 1×10¹⁹ atoms/cm³. The dopant that provides thefirst conductivity of the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10may be introduced using an in situ doping process or using ionimplantation and/or diffusion. By “in situ” it is meant that the dopantthat provides the conductivity type of the material layer is introducedas the material layer is being formed or deposited.

The dopant concentration that provides the first conductivity type ofthe crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 may be graded oruniform. By “uniform” it is meant that the dopant concentration is thesame throughout the entire thickness of a material layer, such as thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10. For example, acrystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 having a uniform dopantconcentration may have the same dopant concentration at the uppersurface and bottom surface of the material layer that provides thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10, as well as the samedopant concentration at a central portion of the crystalline germanium(Ge) containing layer 10 between the upper surface and the bottomsurface. By “graded” it is meant that the dopant concentration variesthroughout the thickness of a material layer, such as a crystallinegermanium (Ge) containing layer 10. For example, a germanium (Ge)containing layer 10 having a graded dopant concentration may have anupper surface with a greater dopant concentration than the bottomsurface of the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10, and viceversa. In another example, the greatest dopant concentration of thecrystalline semiconductor material that provides the crystallinegermanium (Ge) containing layer 10 may be present in a central portionof the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 between the uppersurface and the bottom surface of the crystalline germanium (Ge)containing layer 10. In some embodiments, the dopant gas flow ratio maybe varied during epitaxial growth via plasma enhanced chemical vapordeposition to provide a crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10having a graded dopant concentration. Similarly, the Ge containing layer10 may have a graded composition, i.e. the Si content of the Gecontaining layer 10 may vary across layer 10.

In some embodiments, the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10has a thickness ranging from 100 nm to 1 mm. In another embodiment, thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 has a thickness rangingfrom 1 μm to 300 μm. In yet another embodiment, the thickness of thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 ranges from 1 μm to 5 μm.In some embodiments, the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10is a material that that is transferred to the photovoltaic device 100using a layer transfer method, such as spalling. For example, thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 may be transferred from agermanium (Ge) containing substrate. More specifically, a handlingsubstrate, such as a flexible polymeric substrate, may be engaged to thegermanium (Ge) containing substrate. In some instances, the flexiblepolymeric substrate that provides the handling substrate can be apressure sensitive tape. In some embodiments, a stressor material layer,such as a metal layer may be present between the handling substrate andthe germanium (Ge) containing substrate. The stressor material layer maybe composed of Ti/W, Ti, Cr, Ni or any combination thereof. In someother embodiments, the stressor material layer may be provided by theflexible polymeric substrate. The stressor material layer may induce astress to the germanium (Ge) containing substrate, which causes thegermanium (Ge) containing substrate to be cleaved, i.e., spalled.Additional stresses to induce spalling may be applied to the germanium(Ge) containing substrate through the handling substrate, e.g., flexiblepolymeric substrate.

In some embodiments, following spalling of the germanium (Ge) containingsubstrate the portion that remains connected to the handling substrateprovides the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10. The portionof the germanium (Ge) containing substrate that is separated from thehandling substrate may be re-used to provide other crystalline germanium(Ge) containing material layers for other photovoltaic and/orsemiconductor devices. In some embodiments, following spalling of thegermanium (Ge) containing substrate, a material layer, such as thesilicon (Si) containing layer 5, may be formed on the crystallinegermanium (Ge) containing layer and the handling substrate may beremoved. In other embodiments, at least one material layer, such as thesilicon (Si) containing layer 5, is formed on the germanium (Ge)containing substrate before the spalling operation. In some embodiments,the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 is formed on asilicon (Si) containing host substrate before being transferred to thehandling substrate using layer transfer methods, such as spalling. Insome embodiments, multiple layer transfers and multiple handlingsubstrates may be utilized to provide the crystalline germanium (Ge)containing layer 10 from a germanium (Ge) containing substrate. It isnoted that layer transfer is not the only method for providing thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10. For example, when thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 is composed ofpoly-germanium (Ge), the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10may be obtained by thermal (or e-beam) evaporation at high depositionrates to reduce deposition cost (followed by recrystallization, ifnecessary).

In some embodiments, the bottom cell 25 of the photovoltaic device 100includes a heterojunction of a crystalline germanium containing (Ge)nanowire 11 and a silicon (Si) containing layer, wherein the crystallinegermanium containing (Ge) nanowire 11 provides the absorption layer ofthe bottom cell 25 and the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 is acomponent of the emitter contact to the bottom cell 25. The crystallinegermanium containing (Ge) nanowire 11 may be provided by the germanium(Ge) containing layer 10, in which the germanium (Ge) containing layer10 may have a columnar topography, as depicted in FIG. 1A. As usedherein, the term “nanowire” means a structure having an aspect ratio(height:width) that is greater than 5:1. Referring to FIG. 1A, theheight d2 of each nanowire 11 may range from 50 nm to 10 μm, and thewidth d1 of each nanowire 11 may range from 10 nm to 1 μm. In anotherembodiment, the height d4 of each nanowire 11 may range from 250 nm to 5μm, and the width d1 of each nanowire 11 may range from 50 nm to 500 nm.

In some embodiments, the crystalline germanium containing (Ge) nanowires11 are formed from the germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 usingphotolithography and etch processes. In one embodiment, a layer ofphotoresist material is applied atop the germanium (Ge) containing layer10 via spin coating or similar processes. The photoresist material maybe comprised of a dielectric material including carbon, oxygen, andvarious inorganic materials. Following application of the photoresistlayer, the photoresist is typically soft-baked, where the solvents ofthe photoresist layer are evaporated via heating. The layer ofphotoresist is then patterned using a photolithography process. Forexample, a pattern is formed using a reticle or photomask andtransferred into the layer of photoresist on the surface to be etched.Light is passed through the opaque pattern of the reticle, which in turnproduces a patterned image on the layer of photoresist. The photoresistlayer is a light or radiation sensitive material and exposure to lightcauses changes in the photoresist structure. For example, exposure tolight may change the exposed portions of the photoresist from a solublecondition to an insoluble one.

Following exposure, the pattern is developed utilizing a resistdeveloper, such as a chemical solvent. The developer leaves a hole inthe resist layer that corresponds to the opaque pattern of the reticle.An alternative resist strategy, commonly referred to as a negativeresist, leaves a pattern in the resist opposite to that on the mask.Development of the pattern is conducted using development techniquesincluding, but not limited to: continuous spray development and puddledevelopment. Following development of the patterned photoresist layer aphotoresist mask is formed.

Following formation of the photoresist mask over the layer of hard maskmaterial, an etch process is employed to etch the germanium (Ge)containing layer 10 selectively to the photoresist mask. As used herein,the term “selective” in reference to a material removal process denotesthat the rate of material removal for a first material is greater thanthe rate of removal for at least another material of the structure towhich the material removal process is being applied. For example, aselective etch may remove one material to a second material at a ratethat is greater than 10:1. In another example, a selective etch mayremove one material to a second material at a rate that is greater than100:1. In one embodiment, the etch process that etches the germanium(Ge) containing layer 10 to provide the crystalline germanium containing(Ge) nanowire 11 is an anisotropic etch. An anisotropic etch process isa material removal process in which the etch rate in the directionnormal to the surface to be etched is greater than in the directionparallel to the surface to be etched. The anisotropic etch may includereactive-ion etching (RIE). Other examples of anisotropic etching thatcan be used at this point of the present disclosure include ion beametching, plasma etching or laser ablation.

In one embodiment, the etch process for forming the crystallinegermanium containing (Ge) nanowire 11 is timed so that the remainingthickness d3 of the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 inthe etched portions of the layer is greater than 50 nm. In anotherembodiment, the remaining thickness d3 of the crystalline germanium (Ge)containing layer 10 in the etched portions of the layer may range from50 nm to 1 μm. In yet another embodiment, the remaining thickness d3 ofthe germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 in the etched portions of thelayer may range from 100 nm to 250 nm. The height d2+d3 of thecrystalline germanium containing (Ge) nanowire 11 is typically equal tothe original thickness of the germanium (Ge) containing layer 10. Theheight d2, i.e., length, of the removed portion of the germanium (Ge)containing layer 10 that defines the depth of the trenches betweenadjacent crystalline (Ge) germanium containing nanowires 11 may rangefrom 50 nm to 10 μm.

It is noted that the above thicknesses for the height d2 of thecrystalline germanium containing (Ge) nanowire 11, the width d1 of thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowire 11, and the remainingthickness d3 of the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 areprovided for illustrative purposes only, as other ranges and subrangescan be employed and are thus within the scope of the present disclosure.Typically, the width d1 of the crystalline germanium (Ge) containingnanowire 11 and the height d3 of the removed portion of the germanium(Ge) containing layer 10 that provides the trenches between adjacentcrystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowires 11 is shorter than thediffusion length of minority carriers in the germanium (Ge) or silicongermanium (SiGe) of the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowire11. The diffusion length of minority carriers in Ge containing layer 10depends on the crystalline quality, purity (lack or presence ofnear-midgap recombination centers caused by metal impurity), and dopinglevel of the Ge containing layer 10, and may range from a few tens ofnanometers to a few millimeters. The presence of structural defects(i.e. crystal imperfection), recombination centers resulting from metalcontamination and doping reduce the diffusion length of minoritycarriers. The portion of the crystalline germanium (Ge) containingnanowires 11 having a length that is equal to the height d2 that definesthe depth of the trenches between adjacent crystalline germanium (Ge)containing nanowires 11 is typically large enough to allow sufficientlight absorption, i.e., sufficiently larger than the effectiveabsorption length. The effective absorption length refers to the depthat which the majority of the incident phonons present in the solarspectrum are (i.e. >90%) are absorbed in the semiconductor. This lengthis typically >4 μm in the case of pure crystalline Ge and >40 μm in thecase of pure Si. Therefore the effective absorption length in the Gecontaining layer 10 increases by increasing the Si content of the Gecontaining layer 10. Although the following description refers to thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 10 as a having the geometryof the crystalline germanium (Ge) nanowires 11, it is noted that thepresent disclosure is not intended to be limited to only this geometry.The nanowire geometry can be optional. For example, although the silicon(Si) containing layer 5 that provides at least an emitter portion of thebottom cell 25 is depicted in the supplied figures as being formed onthe stepped face of the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowires11, embodiments include wherein the crystalline germanium (Ge)containing layer 10 does not have a nanowire geometry, and the siliconcontaining layer 5 is formed on a planar face of the crystallinegermanium (Ge) containing layer 10.

Referring to FIGS. 1A and 2A, the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 thatis formed on the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowires 11provides a least a portion of the emitter, e.g., emitter contact, to theabsorption layer of the bottom cell 25 that is provided by thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowires 11. The silicon (Si)containing layer 5 is crystalline. For example, the silicon (Si)containing layer 5 may be polycrystalline, multi-crystalline or thesilicon (Si) containing layer 5 may have a single crystal crystallinestructure. The silicon containing layer 5 has a greater band gap thanthe crystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowires 11. To provide alarger band gap in the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 that provides theemitter contact to the bottom cell 25 (also referred to as first cell),the silicon (Si) content in the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 isselected to be greater than the silicon (Si) content of the crystallinegermanium (Ge) containing nanowires 11.

In some instances, when the crystalline germanium (Ge) containingnanowire 11 is composed of silicon germanium (SiGe) or substantiallypure germanium (Ge), the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 may besubstantially pure silicon (Si). By substantially pure it is meant thatthe silicon (Si) containing layer 5 may be composed of a base materialthat is 99 at. % silicon (Si) or greater, e.g., 100 at. % silicon (Si).In some embodiments, the silicon (Si) content of the silicon (Si)containing layer 5 may be 95 at. % or greater. The aforementioned atomic% allow for doping with an n-type or p-type dopant. In the embodiments,in which the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 is substantially puresilicon (Si), the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 has a band gap that isequal to 1.12 eV.

In other embodiments, in which the crystalline germanium (Ge) containingnanowire 11 is composed of silicon germanium (SiGe) or substantiallypure germanium (Ge), the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 may be composedof silicon germanium (SiGe) so long as the silicon content in thesilicon (Si) containing layer 5 is greater than the silicon content inthe germanium (Ge) containing nanowire 11. In some examples, in whichthe silicon (Si) containing layer 5 is composed of silicon germanium(SiGe), the germanium (Ge) content of the silicon (Si) containing layer5 may range from 0 at % to 50 at. %. In another embodiment, in which thesilicon (Si) containing layer 5 was composed of silicon germanium(SiGe), the germanium content of the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 mayrange from 0 at % to 25 at %. The aforementioned atomic % allow fordoping with an n-type or p-type dopants. In one embodiment, in which thesilicon (Si) containing layer 5 is silicon germanium (SiGe), the silicon(Si) containing layer 5 has a band gap that is ranges from 0.85 eV to1.12 eV. In another embodiment, in which the silicon (Si) containinglayer 5 is silicon germanium (SiGe), the silicon (Si) containing layer 5has a band gap that is ranges from 0.95 eV to 1.12 eV.

The silicon (Si) containing layer 5 is typically doped to a secondconductivity type that is opposite the conductivity type of thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowire 11. For example,referring to FIGS. 1A-1C, in some embodiments when the firstconductivity type of the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowire11 in the bottom cell 25 is n-type, the second conductivity of thesilicon (Si) containing layer is p-type. In another embodiment, when thefirst conductivity type of the crystalline germanium (Ge) containingnanowire 11 in the bottom cell 25 is p-type, the second conductivity ofthe silicon (Si) containing layer 5 is n-type. Examples of n-typedopants, i.e., impurities, to provide the second conductivity of thesilicon (Si) containing layer 5 include but are not limited to, antimony(Sb), arsenic (As) and phosphorous (P). Examples of p-type dopants,i.e., impurities, to provide the second conductivity of the silicon (Si)containing layer 5 include but are not limited to, boron (B), aluminum(Al), gallium (Ga) and indium (In). The dopant concentration of thep-type or n-type dopant that provides the second conductivity of thesilicon (Si) containing layer 5 may range from 1×10¹⁵ atoms/cm³ to1×10²¹ atoms/cm³. In another embodiment, the dopant concentration of thep-type or n-type dopant that provides the second conductivity of thesilicon (Si) containing nanowire 11 may range from 5×10¹⁷ atoms/cm³ to3×10²⁰. The dopant that provides the second conductivity of the silicon(Si) containing layer 5 may be introduced using an in situ dopingprocess or using ion implantation and/or diffusion. By “in situ” it ismeant that the dopant that provides the conductivity type of thematerial layer is introduced as the material layer is being formed ordeposited.

The silicon (Si) containing layer 5 may have a conformal thickness thatis present on the stepped surface of the crystalline germanium (Ge)containing nanowires 11. The term “conformal” denotes a layer having athickness that does not deviate from greater than or less than 20% of anaverage value for the thickness of the layer. The thickness of thesilicon (Si) containing layer 5 may range from 2 nm to 2 μm. In anotherembodiment, the thickness of the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 rangesfrom 3 nm to 500 nm. In yet another embodiment, the thickness of thesilicon (Si) containing layer 5 ranges from 3 nm to 25 nm.

Referring to FIGS. 1A-1C, the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 may beepitaxially grown on the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowires11. “Epitaxial growth and/or deposition” means the growth of asemiconductor material on a deposition surface of a semiconductormaterial, in which the semiconductor material being grown has the same(or nearly the same) crystalline characteristics as the semiconductormaterial of the deposition surface. Therefore, in the embodiments inwhich the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowires 11 have asingle crystal crystalline structure, the silicon (Si) containing layer5 that is epitaxially grown on the crystalline germanium (Ge) containingnanowires 11 will also have a single crystal crystalline structure.Further, in the embodiments in which the first crystalline material ofthe crystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowires 11 has apolycrystalline or multi-crystalline structure, the silicon (Si)containing layer 5 that is epitaxially grown on the crystallinegermanium (Ge) containing nanowires 11 will also have a polycrystallineor multi-crystalline structure.

In some embodiments, the epitaxially grown silicon (Si) containing layer5 may be formed using a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process, such asplasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD). For example, theplasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) method of presentdisclosure allows for the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 to beepitaxially formed on the crystalline germanium (Ge) containingnanowires 11 at temperatures of less than 500° C., e.g., less than 250°C. The temperatures disclosed herein for the epitaxial growth of thesilicon (Si) containing layer 5 are measured at the deposition surface,and may also be referred to as substrate temperatures. Plasma enhancedchemical vapor deposition (PECVD) is a deposition process used todeposit films from a gas state (vapor) to a solid state on a depositionsubstrate. Chemical reactions are involved in the process, which occurafter creation of a plasma of the reacting gases. A plasma is any gas inwhich a significant percentage of the atoms or molecules are ionized.Fractional ionization in plasmas used for deposition and relatedmaterials processing varies from about 10⁻⁴ in capacitive dischargeplasmas to as high as 5-10% in high density inductive plasmas.Processing plasmas are typically operated at pressures of a fewmillitorr to a few torr, although arc discharges and inductive plasmascan be ignited at atmospheric pressure. In some embodiments, the plasmais created by RF (AC) frequency, such as a radio frequency induced glowcharge, or DC discharge between two electrodes, the space between whichis filled with the reacting gases. In one example, a PECVD deviceemploys a parallel plate chamber configuration.

The silicon (Si) containing layer 5 may be epitaxially grown via plasmaenhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) from a mixture of silane(SiH₄), hydrogen (H₂) and dopant gasses. Other gases such as Si₂H₆,SiF₄, GeH₄ and CH₄ may be used for growing c-SiGe (crystalline silicongermanium), or incorporating carbon (C) into the c-Si (crystallinesilicon) or c-SiGe (crystalline silicon germanium) film. In oneembodiment, to provide epitaxial growth of a silicon (Si) containinglayer 5 composed of a silicon containing material and doped to a secondconductivity, e.g., n-type conductivity or p-type conductivity, attemperatures of less than 500° C., the ratio of hydrogen gas (H₂) tosilane precursor gas (SiH₄), i.e. [H₂]/[SiH₄] is selected to be greaterthan 5:1. In another embodiment, [H₂]/[SiH₄] ranges from 5:1 to 1000:1.For example, epitaxial growth of silicon is possible at temperatures aslow as 150° C. with [H₂]/[SiH₄] ranging from 5:1 to 20:1. In oneembodiment, to provide epitaxial growth of a silicon (Si) containinglayer 5 composed of a silicon-germanium containing material and doped toa second conductivity, e.g., n-type conductivity or p-type conductivity,at temperatures of less than 500° C., the ratio of hydrogen gas (H₂) tosilane precursor gas (SiH₄) and germane precursor gas (GeH₄) i.e.[H₂]/([SiH₄]+[GeH₄]) is selected to be greater than 5:1. In anotherembodiment, [H₂]/([SiH₄]+[GeH₄]) ranges from 5:1 to 1000:1. For example,epitaxial growth of silicon-germanium is possible at temperatures as lowas 150° C. with [H₂]/([SiH₄]+[GeH₄]) ranging from 5:1 to 20:1.

The dopant gasses of the low temperature PECVD process provide theconductivity type of the silicon (Si) containing layer 5. Morespecifically, as the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 is epitaxiallygrown it is in-situ doped. The in-situ doping of the n-type dopants canbe effected by adding a dopant gas including at least one n-type dopant,e.g., phosphorus or arsenic, into the gas stream into the processchamber. For example, when phosphorus is the n-type dopant, the dopantgas can be phosphine (PH₃), and when arsenic is the n-type dopant, thedopant gas can be arsine (AsH₃). In one example, when the secondconductivity type dopant is n-type, the dopant gasses include phosphinegas (PH₃) present in a ratio to silane (SiH₄) ranging from 0.01% to 10%.In another example, when the second conductivity type dopant is n-type,the dopant gasses include phosphine gas (PH₃) present in a ratio tosilane (SiH₄) ranging from 0.1% to 2%. In one example, a silicon (Si)containing layer 5 of single crystal silicon was epitaxial grown on acrystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowire 11 at a temperature of150° C., wherein the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 has an n-typeconductivity provided by phosphorus dopant present in a concentrationgreater than 1×10²⁰ cm⁻³.

The in-situ doping of p-type dopant to provide the second conductivitytype in the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 can be effected with adopant gas including at least one p-type dopant, e.g., B, into the gasstream into the process chamber. For example, when boron is the p-typedopant, the dopant gas can be diborane (B₂H₆). In one embodiment,wherein the second conductivity type dopant is p-type, the dopant gassesfor forming the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 may be diborane (B₂H₆)present in a ratio to silane (SiH₄) ranging from 0.01% to 10%. Inanother embodiment, wherein the second conductivity type dopant isp-type, the dopant gasses for forming the silicon (Si) containing layer5 may be diborane (B₂H₆) present in a ratio to silane (SiH₄) rangingfrom 0.1% to 2%. In yet another embodiment, in which the secondconductivity type dopant is p-type, the dopant gasses for forming thesilicon (Si) containing layer 5 may be trimethylboron (TMB) present in aratio to silane (SiH₄) ranging from 0.1% to 10%.

The dopant that is introduced to the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 maybe uniform in concentration or may have a graded concentration. By“uniform” it is meant that the dopant concentration is the samethroughout the entire thickness of the silicon (Si) containing layer 5.For example, a silicon (Si) containing layer 5 having a uniform dopantconcentration may have the same dopant concentration at the uppersurface and bottom surface of the silicon (Si) containing layer 5, aswell as the same dopant concentration at a central portion of thesilicon (Si) containing layer 5 between the upper surface and the bottomsurface of the silicon (Si) containing layer 5. By “graded” it is meantthat the dopant concentration varies throughout the thickness of thesilicon (Si) containing layer 5. For example, a silicon (Si) containinglayer 5 having a graded dopant concentration may have an upper surfacewith a greater dopant concentration than the bottom surface of thesilicon (Si) containing layer 5, and vice versa. In another example, thegreatest dopant concentration of the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 maybe present in a central portion of the silicon (Si) containing layer 5between the upper surface and the bottom surface of the silicon (Si)containing layer 5. In one embodiment, to provide a graded dopantconcentration in the silicon (Si) containing layer 5, the gas flow ratiofor the dopant gas may be varied during epitaxial growth of the silicon(Si) containing layer 5 by PECVD. In one embodiment where the Sicontaining layer 5 is comprised of silicon-germanium, the Ge content ofthe Si containing layer 5 varies across the Si containing layer 5. Thismay be achieved by varying the ratio of the Ge containing gas precursor(such as GeH₄) to the Si containing precursor (such as SiH₄) during thePECVD growth of the Si containing layer 5.

The pressure for the low temperature PECVD process for epitaxiallygrowing the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 ranges from 10 mTorr to 5Torr, and in one example may be in the range of 250 mtorr to 900 mTorr.The power density for the low temperature PECVD process for epitaxiallygrowing the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 may range from 1 mW/cm² to100 mW/cm², and in one example may be in the range of 3 mW/cm² to 10mW/cm². Further details regarding the epitaxial growth process forforming the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 of the present disclosureare described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/032,866 (titled“Ultra Low-temperature selective epitaxial growth of Silicon for deviceintegration”), which is incorporated herein by reference.

Referring to FIGS. 1A and 1B, the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 is onelayer that is present in the emitter contact to the absorption layerthat is provided by the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowires11. The emitter contact may also include a semiconductor front contactlayer 6 that is present atop the silicon (Si) containing layer 5, whichmay be either intrinsic or having the same conductivity type as that oflayer 5. The term “intrinsic semiconductor”, also called an undopedsemiconductor or i-type semiconductor, is a substantially puresemiconductor without any significant dopant species present. The numberof charge carriers in the intrinsic semiconductor is determined by theproperties of the material itself instead of the amount of impurities,i.e., dopants. Typically, in intrinsic semiconductors the number ofexcited electrons and the number of holes are equal (n=p). Thesemiconductor front contact layer 6 can serve to passivate the topsurface of the silicon (Si) containing layer 5, and reduce electron-holerecombination. The semiconductor front contact layer 6 is typically, butnot necessarily always, hydrogenated. The semiconductor front contactlayer 6 may also have an amorphous crystal structure. The term“amorphous” means that the structure lacks a defined repeating crystalstructure. The semiconductor front contact layer 6 may also becrystalline, such as monocrystalline, polycrystalline, multicrystalline,micro-crystalline and nano-crystalline. In one example, in which thesilicon (Si) containing layer 5 is composed of p-type crystallinesilicon germanium (SiGe), the semiconductor front contact layer 6 iscomposed of intrinsic or p-type hydrogenated amorphous silicon germanium(i or p⁺ α-SiGe:H). In another example, in which the silicon (Si)containing layer 5 composed of p-type crystalline silicon germanium(SiGe), the semiconductor front contact layer 6 is composed of intrinsicor p-type hydrogenated amorphous silicon (i or p+α-Si:H).

The semiconductor front contact layer 6 can be formed utilizing anychemical or physical growth process including any semiconductorprecursor source material. Examples of chemical vapor deposition (CVD)methods that are suitable for forming the intrinsic semiconductor frontcontact layer 6 include, but are not limited to, Atmospheric PressureCVD (APCVD), Low Pressure CVD (LPCVD) and Plasma Enhanced CVD (EPCVD),Metal-Organic CVD (MOCVD) and combinations thereof may also be employed.The semiconductor front contact layer 6 may also be deposited usingevaporation, chemical solution deposition, spin on deposition, andphysical vapor deposition (PVD) methods. In some embodiments, thehydrogenated semiconductor containing material, e.g., hydrogenatedamorphous silicon germanium (α-SiGe:H) and/or hydrogenated amorphoussilicon germanium (α-SiGe:H), used in forming the semiconductor frontcontact layer 6 is deposited in a process chamber containing asemiconductor precursor source gas and a carrier gas including hydrogen.Hydrogen atoms in the precursor source gas or in the hydrogen gas withinthe carrier gas are incorporated into the deposited material to form thesemiconductor front contact layer 6. In some embodiments, thesemiconductor front contact layer 6 may be formed using the lowtemperature plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition method that isdescribed above for forming the silicon (Si) containing layer 5.Typically, the thickness of the semiconductor front contact layer 6 isfrom 2 nm to 15 nm, although lesser and greater thicknesses can also beemployed. The semiconductor front contact layer 6 is optional, and maybe omitted. In embodiments where the semiconductor front contact layer 6is doped, doping is achieved by flowing dopant gas sources along withthe precursor gas. For example, B₂H₆ or TMB may be used for p-typedoping, and PH₃ may be used for n-type doping.

Referring to FIGS. 1A and 1B, in some embodiments, a back contactstructure may be present and in contact with the surface of thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowires 11 that is opposite thesurface of the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowires 11 thatis in contact with the emitter contact, e.g., the silicon (Si)containing layer 5. The surface of the crystalline germanium (Ge)containing nanowires 11 that is opposite the surface of the crystallinegermanium (Ge) containing nanowires 11 that is in contact with theemitter contact is hereafter referred to as the back surface of thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowires 11. In one embodiment,the back contact structure may include a back intrinsic semiconductorcontact layer 7 and a doped semiconductor back contact layer 8 havingthe same conductivity type as the crystalline germanium (Ge) containingnanowires 11.

In one embodiment, the intrinsic semiconductor back contact layer 7 mayhave a crystalline or amorphous crystal structure. In some example, whenthe intrinsic semiconductor back contact layer 7 has a crystallinecrystal structure, the crystal structure of the intrinsic semiconductorback contact layer 7 may be single crystalline, polycrystalline,multi-crystalline, micro-crystalline and/or monocrystalline. In oneembodiment, the intrinsic semiconductor back contact layer 7 can serveto passivate the back surface of the crystalline germanium (Ge)containing nanowires 11, and reduce electron-hole recombination.

The intrinsic semiconductor back contact layer 7 may be composed of asilicon containing semiconductor including, but not limited to, silicon(Si), germanium (Ge), silicon germanium (SiGe) and compoundsemiconductors, such as type III-V semiconductors. The intrinsicsemiconductor back contact layer 7 is typically, but not necessarilyalways hydrogenated. In one example, in which the crystalline germanium(Ge) containing nanowires 11 are composed of n-type germanium (Ge), theintrinsic semiconductor back contact layer 7 is composed of intrinsichydrogenated amorphous silicon carbide (i α-SiC:H). In some embodiments,the intrinsic semiconductor back contact layer 7 is in direct contactwith the back surface of the intrinsic semiconductor back contact layer7, as depicted in FIGS. 1A and 1B.

The intrinsic semiconductor back contact layer 7 may be formed utilizingany chemical or physical growth process including any semiconductorprecursor source material. Examples of chemical vapor deposition (CVD)methods that are suitable for forming the back intrinsic semiconductorcontact layer 7 include, but are not limited to, Atmospheric PressureCVD (APCVD), Low Pressure CVD (LPCVD) and Plasma Enhanced CVD (EPCVD),Metal-Organic CVD (MOCVD) and combinations thereof may also be employed.The intrinsic semiconductor back contact layer 7 may also be depositedusing evaporation, chemical solution deposition, spin on deposition, andphysical vapor deposition (PVD) methods.

In some embodiments, the intrinsic hydrogenated semiconductor containingmaterial, e.g., intrinsic hydrogenated amorphous silicon carbide (iα-SiC:H), used in forming the intrinsic semiconductor back contact layer7 is deposited in a process chamber containing a semiconductor precursorsource gas and a carrier gas including hydrogen. Hydrogen atoms in theprecursor source gas or in the hydrogen gas within the carrier gas areincorporated into the deposited material to form the intrinsicsemiconductor back contact layer 7. In some embodiments, the intrinsicsemiconductor back contact layer 7 may be formed using the lowtemperature plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition method that isdescribed above for forming the silicon (Si) containing layer 5.Typically, the thickness of the intrinsic semiconductor back contactlayer 7 is from 2 nm to 15 nm, although lesser and greater thicknessescan also be employed. The intrinsic semiconductor back contact layer 7is optional, and may be omitted.

Referring to FIGS. 1A and 1B, the doped semiconductor back contact layer8 may function as a back surface field layer and can serve to passivatethe back surface of the absorption layer that is provided by thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowires 11, and reduceelectron-hole recombination. The doped semiconductor back contact layer8 may be a type IV semiconductor material, such as silicon (Si), silicongermanium (SiGe), germanium (Ge) or other silicon containing andgermanium containing materials. The doped semiconductor back contactlayer 8 may have a crystalline or amorphous crystal structure. In someembodiments are, when the doped semiconductor back contact layer 8 has acrystalline crystal structure, the crystal structure of the dopedsemiconductor back contact layer 8 may be single crystalline,polycrystalline, multi-crystalline, micro-crystalline and/ormonocrystalline.

The doped semiconductor back contact layer 8 typically has the sameconductivity type as the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowires1. For example, when the first conductivity of the crystalline germanium(Ge) containing nanowires 11 is n-type, the conductivity type of thedoped semiconductor back contact layer 8 is n-type, as depicted in FIGS.1A-1C. Examples of n-type and p-type dopants for type IV semiconductormaterials that are suitable for the doped semiconductor back contactlayer 8 have been described above. For example, when the dopedsemiconductor back contact layer 8 is a type IV semiconductor having ann-type conductivity, the n-type dopant may be phosphorous (P). Inanother example, when the doped semiconductor back contact layer 8 is atype IV semiconductor having a p-type conductivity, the p-type dopantmay be boron (B). Typically, the dopant concentration that dictates theconductivity type of the doped semiconductor back contact layer 8 isgreater than the dopant concentration that dictates the conductivitytype of the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowires 11. Forexample, in one embodiment, in which the dopant concentration of then-type or p-type dopant that is present in the crystalline germanium(Ge) containing nanowires 11 ranges from 10⁹ atoms/cm³ to 10²⁰atoms/cm³, the dopant concentration of the n-type or p-type dopant inthe doped semiconductor back contact layer 8 ranges from 10¹⁶ atoms/cm³to 5×10²⁰ atoms/cm³. In another example, in which the dopantconcentration of the n-type or p-type dopant that is present in thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowires 11 ranges from 10¹⁴atoms/cm³ to 10¹⁹ atoms/cm³, the dopant concentration of the n-type orp-type dopant in the doped semiconductor back contact layer 8 rangesfrom 10⁷ atoms/cm³ to 10²⁰ atoms/cm³.

In some embodiments, the doped semiconductor back contact layer 8 hasthe same base semiconductor material as the intrinsic semiconductor backcontact layer 7. For example, in one embodiment, where the intrinsicsemiconductor back contact layer 7 is composed of hydrogenated amorphoussilicon carbide (i α-SiC:H), the doped semiconductor back contact layer8 may be composed of n-type or p-type hydrogenated amorphous siliconcarbide (n⁺ or p⁺ α-SiC:H). As another example, in one embodiment, wherethe intrinsic semiconductor back contact layer 7 is composed ofhydrogenated amorphous silicon (i α-Si:H), the doped semiconductor backcontact layer 8 may be composed of n-type or p-type hydrogenatedamorphous silicon (n⁺ or p⁺ α-Si:H) In other embodiments, the dopedsemiconductor back contact layer 8 has a different base semiconductormaterial as the intrinsic semiconductor back contact layer 7. in oneembodiment, where the intrinsic semiconductor back contact layer 7 iscomposed of hydrogenated amorphous silicon (i α-Si:H), the dopedsemiconductor back contact layer 8 may be composed of n-type or p-typehydrogenated amorphous silicon carbide (n⁺ or p⁺ α-SiC:H). As anotherexample, in one embodiment, where the intrinsic semiconductor backcontact layer 7 is composed of hydrogenated amorphous silicon (iα-Si:H), the doped semiconductor back contact layer 8 may be composed ofn-type or p-type hydrogenated amorphous silicon germanium (n⁺ or p⁺α-SiGe:H).

The doped semiconductor back contact layer 8 can be formed utilizing anydeposition or growth process. In one embodiment, the process includes anin-situ doped epitaxial growth process in which the dopant atom isintroduced with the semiconductor precursor source material, e.g., asilane, during the formation of the doped semiconductor back contactlayer 8. The doped semiconductor back contact layer 8 may also be formedusing the low temperature plasma enhanced chemical vapor depositionprocess that is described above for forming the silicon (Si) containinglayer of the emitter contact structure. In another embodiment, thedopant can be introduced into the intrinsic semiconductor back contactlayer 7 to form the doped semiconductor back contact layer 8 using oneof ion implantation, gas phase doping, liquid solution spray/mistdoping, and/or out-diffusion of a dopant atom from an overlyingsacrificial dopant material layer that can be formed on the undopedsemiconductor material, and removed after the out-diffusion process. Thethickness of the doped semiconductor back contact layer 8 may varydepending on the exact conditions used in forming the layer. Typically,the doped semiconductor back contact layer 8 has a thickness from 1 nmto 1 mm, with a thickness from 2 nm to 5 μm being more typical.

The order of forming the front contact, i.e., emitter contact, and theback contact to the absorption layer that is provided by the crystallinegermanium (Ge) containing nanowires 11 is typically not critical to thepresent disclosure. For example, the material layers that provide thefront contact, i.e., emitter contact, can be formed first and then thematerial layers that provide the back contact can be formed. In anotherembodiment, the material layers that provide the back contact can beformed first and then the material layers for the front contact can beformed.

Referring to FIGS. 1A and 1B and, in one embodiment, a back contacttransparent conductive material layer 9 can be formed in contact withthe surface of the doped semiconductor back contact layer 8 that isopposite the surface of the doped semiconductor back contact layer 8that is in contact with the intrinsic semiconductor back contact layer7. Throughout this disclosure, an element is “transparent” if theelement is sufficiently transparent in the visible electromagneticspectral range. In one embodiment, the back contact transparentconductive material layer 9 can include a transparent conductive oxidesuch as, but not limited to, a fluorine-doped tin oxide (SnO₂:F), analuminum-doped zinc oxide (ZnO:Al), tin oxide (SnO) and indium tin oxide(InSnO₂, or ITO for short). The thickness of the back contacttransparent conductive material layer 9 may vary depending on the typeof transparent conductive material employed, as well as the techniquethat was used in forming the transparent conductive material. Typically,and in one embodiment, the thickness of the back contact transparentconductive material layer 9 ranges from 20 nm to 500 nm. Otherthicknesses, including those less than 20 nm and/or greater than 500 nmcan also be employed. The optimum thickness of TCO for minimizingreflection from the surface of Si is in the range of 70 nm to 110 nm.The back contact transparent conductive material layer 9 is typicallyformed using a deposition process, such as sputtering or CVD. Examplesof CVD processes suitable for forming the back contact transparentconductive material layer 9 include, but are not limited to, APCVD,LPCVD, PECVD, MOCVD and combinations thereof. Examples of sputteringinclude, but are not limited to, RF and DC magnetron sputtering. In someembodiments, a metal layer may be used instead of the transparentconductive material layer 9. The metal may be selected from the groupincluding titanium (Ti), aluminum (Al), copper (Cu), tungsten (Tu),plantium (Pt), silver (Ag), chromium (Cr), and combinations thereof. Themetal layer may be deposited using a physical vapor deposition (PVD)method, such as thermal or electron-beam evaporation, plating orsputtering. The metal layer may be also formed using screen-printing.

Still referring to FIGS. 1A and 1B, a substrate 12 may be presentunderlying the back contact structure. In one embodiment, the substrate12 may be composed of a semiconductor material, such as asilicon-containing semiconductor material. Examples ofsilicon-containing semiconductor materials include silicon (Si),germanium (Ge), silicon germanium (SiGe), silicon carbide (SiC), silicongermanium carbide (SiGeC) and combinations thereof. In one embodiment,the substrate 12 is composed of a glass or a polymeric material.

Referring to FIGS. 1A and 1B and, in one embodiment, the bottom cell 25of the photovoltaic device 100 is separated from the upper cell 35 ofthe photovoltaic device 100 by a tunneling layer 30. The tunneling layer30 may be composed of a metal layer or a transparent conductivitymaterial. In one embodiment, the tunneling layer 30 may be composed of atransparent conductive material, such as the transparent conductiveoxide (TCO). The role of the optional tunneling layer is to enhance thetunneling of the carriers at the p⁺/n⁺ tunneling junction formed at theinterface between the top cell and the bottom cell. In one embodiment,the tunneling layer 301 may have a thickness ranging from 5 nm to 15 nm,although larger and lesser thicknesses may be also used. The thicknessof the tunneling layer is typically adjusted to optimize the tunnelingof carriers, as well as the optical coupling between the top cell andthe bottom cell. In one embodiment, the upper cell 35 is a p-i-namorphous silicon (α-Si) cell. The materials of the layers within theupper cell 35 are selected to absorb shorter wavelengths of light,whereas the materials of the layers within the bottom cell 25 areselected to absorb longer wavelengths of light. When the photovoltaicdevice 100 is in operation, the light from the light source, such as thesun, travels through upper top cell 35 first before reaching the bottomcell 25. In one example, the top layer 15 is p-type hydrogenatedamorphous silicon (p⁺ α-Si:H), the middle layer 14 is intrinsichydrogenated amorphous silicon (i α-Si:H), and the bottom layer 13 isn-type hydrogenated amorphous silicon (n⁺ α-Si:H). In another example,the top layer 15 is p-type hydrogenated amorphous silicon carbide (p⁺α-SiC:H), the middle layer 14 is intrinsic hydrogenated amorphoussilicon (i α-Si:H), and the bottom layer 13 is n-type hydrogenatedamorphous silicon (n⁺ α-Si:H). It is noted that the above compositionsfor the material layers of the top cell 35 are provided for illustrativepurposes only. For example, the crystalline structure for each materiallayer does not necessarily have to be amorphous. In some examples, thecrystalline structure for the top layer 15, the middle layer 14 and thebottom layer 13 may be single crystal, polycrystalline,multi-crystalline, microcrystalline and/or nanocrystalline. Each of thetop layer 15, middle layer 14 and the bottom layer 13 of the top cell 35may be deposited using a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process.Examples of chemical vapor deposition (CVD) methods that are suitablefor forming the material layers of the upper cell 35 include, but arenot limited to, Atmospheric Pressure CVD (APCVD), Low Pressure CVD(LPCVD) and Plasma Enhanced CVD (EPCVD), and combinations thereof mayalso be employed. The material layers of the upper cell 35 may also bedeposited using evaporation, chemical solution deposition, spin ondeposition, and physical vapor deposition (PVD) methods. In someembodiments, each of the top layer 15, middle layer 14 and the bottomlayer 13 of the upper cell 35 may be deposited using the low temperatureplasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition method that is described abovefor forming the silicon (Si) containing layer 5. Typically, each of thetop layer 15, middle layer 14 and the bottom layer 13 of the upper cell35 has a thickness from 1 nm to 1 mm, with a thickness from 2 nm to 5 μmbeing more typical.

Still referring to FIGS. 1A and 1B and, in some embodiments, a fronttransparent conductive material layer 16 is present on the upper surfaceof the top layer 15 of the upper cell 35. The front transparentconductive material layer 16 is composed of a similar material as theback contact transparent conductive material layer 9. The fronttransparent conductive material layer 16 of this embodiment can also beformed utilizing one of the techniques mentioned above for the fronttransparent conductive material layer 16.

Referring to FIG. 1C and, in one embodiment, a photovoltaic device 100′is provided in which three upper cells 35 a, 35 b, 35 c may be presentover the bottom cell 25, in which each of the upper cells 35 a, 35 b, 35c are separated from each other and the bottom cell 25 by a tunnelinglayer 30, 30 a, 30 b. The bottom cell 25 that is depicted in FIG. 1C issimilar to the bottom cell 25 that is depicted in FIGS. 1A and 1B.Therefore, the description of the bottom cell 25 that is depicted inFIGS. 1A and 1B is suitable for the bottom cell 25 that is depicted inFIG. 1C. The tunneling layer 30 a, 30 b that is present between each ofthe upper cells 35 a, 35 b, 35 c is similar to the tunneling layer 30that is described above with reference to FIG. 1B. Therefore, the abovedescription of the tunneling layer 30 that is depicted in FIGS. 1A and1B is suitable for the tunneling layer 30 that is depicted in FIG. 1C.

Each of the upper cells 35 a, 35 b, 35 c of the photovoltaic device 100that is depicted in FIG. 1C may be a multi-layered structure includingan upper layer of a p-type conductivity semiconductor, a middle layercomposed of an intrinsic semiconductor and a lower layer of an n-typeconductivity semiconductor. Typically, the materials of the upper cells35 a, 35 b, 35 c are selected so that the cells that are closest to thelight source absorb the shorter wavelengths and the cells that arefarther away from the light source absorb the longer wavelengths. Thesemiconductor material layers may have an amorphous or crystallinecrystal structure. In some examples, when the semiconductor material hasa crystalline crystal structure, the semiconductor material may bemonocrystalline, polycrystalline, multi-crystalline, micro-crystalline,nano-crystalline or a combination thereof. The n-type or p-typeconductivity may be provided by in-situ doping or ion implantation.

In one example, the uppermost upper cell 35 c of the photovoltaic device100 is composed of p-type hydrogenated amorphous silicon layer (p-typeα-Si:H) that is present on an intrinsic hydrogenated amorphous siliconlayer (i α-Si:H), which is present on an n-type hydrogenated amorphoussilicon layer (n-type α-Si:H). The p-type hydrogenated amorphous siliconlayer (p-type α-Si:H) of the uppermost upper cell 35 c is closest to thelight source and the n-type hydrogenated amorphous silicon layer (n-typeα-Si:H) is in contact with the tunneling layer 30 b that is presentbetween the uppermost upper cell 35 c and a middle upper cell 35 b. Inone example, the middle upper cell 35 b is composed of the photovoltaicdevice 100 is composed of p-type hydrogenated amorphous silicongermanium layer (p-type α-SiGe:H) that is present on an intrinsichydrogenated amorphous silicon germanium layer (i α-SiGe:H), which ispresent on an n-type hydrogenated amorphous silicon germanium layer(n-type α-SiGe:H). The p-type hydrogenated amorphous silicon germaniumlayer (p-type α-Si:H) of the middle upper cell 35 b is in contact withthe tunneling layer 30 b that is separating the uppermost upper cell 35c from the middle upper cell 35 b. The n-type hydrogenated amorphoussilicon germanium layer (n-type α-Si:H) of the middle upper cell 35 b isin contact with the tunneling layer 30 a that is separating the middleupper cell 35 b from the lower upper cell 35 a. In one example, thelower upper cell 35 a is composed of p-type hydrogenatedmicrocrystalline silicon (p-type μc-Si:H) layer that is present on anintrinsic hydrogenated microcrystalline silicon (i μc-Si:H) layer, inwhich the intrinsic hydrogenated microcrystalline silicon (i μc-Si:H)layer is present on an n-type hydrogenated microcrystalline silicon(n-type μc-Si:H) layer. The p-type hydrogenated microcrystalline silicon(p-type μc-Si:H) layer may be in direct contact with the tunneling layer30 a that separates the middle upper cell 35 b from the lower upper cell35 a. The n-type hydrogenated microcrystalline silicon (p-type μc-Si:H)layer may be in direct contact with the tunneling layer 30 thatseparates the middle upper cell 35 b from the lower upper cell 35 a.

Each of the material layers within the upper cells 35 a, 35 b, 35 c ofthe photovoltaic device 100′ may have a thickness ranging from 1 nm to 1mm. In another embodiment, each of the material layers within the uppercells 35 a, 35 b, 35 c of the photovoltaic device 100′ may have athickness ranging from 2 nm to 5 μm. Each of the material layers withinthe upper cells 35 a, 35 b, 35 c of the photovoltaic device 100 may bedeposited using a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process. The intrinsicsemiconductor back contact layer 7 may also be deposited usingevaporation, chemical solution deposition, spin on deposition, andphysical vapor deposition (PVD) methods. In some embodiments, each ofthe material layers within the upper cells 35 a, 35 b, 35 c of thephotovoltaic device 100′ may be deposited using the low temperatureplasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition method that is described abovefor forming the silicon (Si) containing layer 5.

Still referring to FIG. 1C, an upper cell transparent conductivematerial layer 16′, may be present on the upper surface of the uppermostcell 35 c. The upper cell transparent conductive material layer 16′ maybe composed of the same material as the front transparent conductivematerial layer 16 that is depicted in FIGS. 1A and 1B. Therefore, theabove description of the front transparent conductive material layer 16that is depicted in FIGS. 1A and 1B is suitable for the upper celltransparent conductive material layer 16′ that is depicted in FIG. 1C.

FIGS. 2A-2B depict another embodiment of the present disclosure. InFIGS. 2A-2B, a photovoltaic device 100″ is provided that includes anupper cell 130 including a cadmium telluride (CdTe) cell that absorbs afirst range of wavelengths of light and a bottom cell 125 that absorbs asecond range of wavelengths of light, wherein the bottom cell 130includes a heterojunction having a crystalline germanium (Ge) containinglayer 111. In one embodiment, the bandgap of the CdTe top cell is in therange of 1.3-1.6 eV. In another embodiment, the bandgap of the CdTe topcell is in the range of 1.4-1.5 eV. In one embodiment, the Ge containingbottom cell is comprised of crystalline silicon-germanium with a bandgapin the range of 0.67-0.85 eV. In another embodiment, the Ge containingbottom cell is comprised of pure crystalline Ge having a bandgap of 0.67eV.

The lower cell 125 of the photovoltaic device 100″ depicted in FIGS. 2Aand 2B is similar to the lower cell 25 of the photovoltaic device 100that is depicted in FIGS. 1A and 1B. The crystalline germanium (Ge)containing layer 111 that is depicted in FIGS. 2A and 2B is similar tothe crystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowire 11 that is depictedin FIGS. 1A and 1B. Therefore, the description of the crystallinegermanium (Ge) containing nanowire 11 that is depicted in FIGS. 1A and1B is suitable for the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowire 11that is depicted in FIGS. 2A and 2B. In one example, the crystallinegermanium (Ge) nanowire 11 is composed of crystalline germanium (Ge)having a p-type conductivity.

The lower cell 125 further includes a silicon (Si) containing layer 60overlying the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 111, whereinthe silicon containing layer 60 has a conductivity type that is oppositethe crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 111. For example, whenthe crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 111 has a p-typeconductivity, the silicon (Si) containing layer 60 has an n-typeconductivity. The silicon (Si) containing layer 60 that is depicted inFIGS. 2A and 2B is similar to the silicon (Si) containing layer 5 thatis depicted in FIGS. 1A and 1B. In one example, in which the crystallinegermanium (Ge) containing layer 111 is composed of p-type germanium(Ge), the silicon (Si) containing layer 60 is composed of n-typehydrogenated amorphous silicon carbide (n⁺ α-SiC:H).

Referring to FIGS. 2A and 2B, in one embodiment, the silicon (Si)containing layer 60 is separated from the crystalline germanium (Ge)containing layer 11 by a front intrinsic semiconductor contact layer 50.In one example, when the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowires111 are composed of p-type germanium (Ge) having a single crystalcrystalline structure and the silicon containing layer 60 is composed ofn-type hydrogenated amorphous silicon carbide (n⁺ α-SiC:H), the frontintrinsic semiconductor contact layer 50 may be composed of intrinsichydrogenated amorphous silicon carbide (i α-SiC:H).

The silicon (Si) containing layer 60 and the front intrinsicsemiconductor contact layer 50 provide the emitter contact to theabsorption layer of the lower cell 125 that is provided by thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer 111. The back contact to thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowire 111 may be provide by ap-type crystalline silicon germanium (SiGe) layer 70 that is in directcontact with the back surface of the crystalline germanium (Ge)containing nanowire 111. The concentration of the p-type dopant in thep-type crystalline silicon germanium (SiGe) layer 70 is typicallygreater than the p-type dopant in the p-type crystalline silicongermanium (SiGe) layer 70. In some embodiments, a p-type hydrogenatedamorphous silicon germanium (α-SiGe:H) layer 80 is present in contactwith the surface of the p-type crystalline silicon germanium (SiGe)layer 70 that is opposite the surface of the p-type crystalline silicongermanium (SiGe) layer 70 that is in contact with the back surface ofthe crystalline germanium (Ge) containing nanowire 111. The lower cell125 may also include a substrate 120 and a transparent conductive oxidelayer 90. The description of the substrate 12 depicted in FIGS. 1A and1B is suitable for the substrate 120 that is depicted in FIGS. 2A and2B. The description of the transparent conductive oxide layer 9 depictedin FIGS. 1A and 1B is suitable for the transparent conductive oxidelayer 90 that is depicted in FIGS. 2A and 2B.

The lower cell 125 is separated from the upper cell 130 by a tunnelinglayer 300. The upper cell 130 includes a first conductivity, i.e.,p-type or n-type, buffer region 305 that is in direct contact with thetunneling layer 300. The buffer layer may serve to provide/improve ohmiccontact between the tunneling layer 300 and the first conductivity typelayer 306. In some embodiments, a first conductivity, i.e., p-type orn-type, cadmium telluride (CdTe) layer 306 is present on the bufferregion 305. Typically, the cadmium telluride (CdTe) layer 306 has thesame conductivity, i.e., first conductivity as the buffer region 305. Insome embodiments, the first conductivity type cadmium telluride (CdTe)layer 306 may be replaced with a first conductivity material layer ofcopper indium gallium (di)selenide (CIGS), Cu₂ZnSnS₄ (CZTS), orCuzZnSnSe₄ (CZTSe). In some embodiments, a second conductivity typecadmium sulfide (CdS) layer 307 is present on the upper surface of thefirst conductivity type cadmium telluride (CdTe) layer 306. The secondconductivity type of the cadmium sulfide (CdS) layer 307 is opposite thefirst conductivity type of the cadmium telluride (CdTe) layer 306. Forexample, when the first conductivity type of the cadmium telluride(CdTe) layer 306 is p-type, the second conductivity type of the cadmiumsulfide (CdS) layer 307 is n-type. Each of the buffer region 305, thefirst conductivity cadmium telluride (CdTe) layer 306, and the secondconductivity cadmium sulfide (CdS) layer 307 may be deposited using achemical vapor deposition (CVD) process. Examples of chemical vapordeposition (CVD) methods that are suitable for forming of the materiallayers within the upper cell 130 include, but are not limited to,Atmospheric Pressure CVD (APCVD), Low Pressure CVD (LPCVD) and PlasmaEnhanced CVD (EPCVD), Metal-Organic CVD (MOCVD) and combinations thereofmay also be employed.

Still referring to FIGS. 2A and 2B, in one embodiment a fronttransparent conductive material layer 308 is present on an upper surfaceof the second conductivity type cadmium sulfide (CdS) layer 307. Thefront transparent conductive material layer 308 that is depicted inFIGS. 2A and 2B is similar to the front transparent conductive materiallayer 16 that is described above with reference to FIGS. 1A and 1B.Therefore, the description of the front transparent conductive materiallayer 16 that is depicted in FIGS. 1A and 1B is suitable for the fronttransparent conductive material layer 308 that is depicted in FIGS. 2Aand 2B.

While the present disclosure has been particularly shown and describedwith respect to preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood bythose skilled in the art that the foregoing and other changes in formsand details can be made without departing from the spirit and scope ofthe present disclosure. It is therefore intended that the presentdisclosure not be limited to the exact forms and details described andillustrated, but fall within the scope of the appended claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of forming a photovoltaic devicecomprising: forming a first cell comprising a crystalline germanium (Ge)containing layer, in which at least one surface of the crystallinegermanium (Ge) containing layer is in contact with a silicon (Si)containing layer having a larger band gap than the crystalline germanium(Ge) containing layer, wherein the crystalline germanium (Ge) containinglayer comprises a first portion comprising a nanowire and a secondportion, wherein the nanowire has a length that extends verticallyupward from, and perpendicular to, a horizontal surface of said secondportion, and wherein said silicon (Si) containing layer is in directcontact with an entire outermost surface of the nanowire; and forming atleast one second cell on the first cell, wherein the at least one secondcell is positioned so that a light source enters the at least one secondcell before reaching the first cell.
 2. The method of claim 1, whereinthe nanowire is formed by etching a germanium (Ge) containing materialin the first cell.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the nanowire has astepped surface.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the silicon (Si)containing layer is epitaxially formed directly on the nanowire.
 5. Themethod of claim 3, wherein the silicon (Si) containing layer has aconformal thickness.
 6. The method of claim 1, further comprising dopingthe crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer to provide a firstconductivity type of a p-type or n-type dopant, and doping the silicon(Si) containing layer to provide a second conductivity type of an n-typeor p-type dopant that is opposite the first conductivity type.
 7. Themethod of claim 6, wherein the crystalline germanium (Ge) containing hasa uniform dopant concentration.
 8. The method of claim 6, wherein thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing has a graded dopant concentration.9. The method of claim 1, wherein the nanowire is composed of silicongermanium (SiGe).
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein silicon (Si)content in the nanowire is less than the silicon (Si) content of thesilicon (Si) containing layer.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein thegermanium (Ge) content of the crystalline germanium (Ge) containinglayer is greater than the germanium (Ge) content of the silicon (Si)containing layer.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the silicon (Si)containing layer is formed using a plasma-enhanced chemical vapordeposition (PECVD) method at temperatures below 400° C.
 13. The methodof claim 1, wherein the at least one second cell is formed by adeposition process and comprises a single cell structure that iscomprised of a p-i-n solar cell comprised of amorphous hydrogenatedsilicon (Si) or a multi-cell structure that comprises a first p-i-nsolar cell comprised of hydrogenated microcrystalline silicon (Si), asecond p-i-n solar cell comprised of hydrogenated amorphous silicongermanium (Site), and a third p-i-n solar cell comprised of hydrogenatedamorphous silicon (Si).
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein thecrystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer of the first cell isgermanium (Ge), and the silicon (Si) containing layer is doped silicon(Si), wherein the silicon (Si) containing layer is separated from thegermanium (Ge) containing layer by an intrinsic silicon (Si) containinglayer.
 15. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one second cellis formed by a deposition process and the at least one second cell is amultilayered structure.
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the layersof the at least one second cell are material layers selected from thegroup consisting of cadmium telluride (CdTe), cadmium sulfur (CdS),copper indium gallium (di)selenide (CIGS), Cu₂ZnSnS₄ (CZTS), Cu₂ZnSnSe₄(CZTSe) and a combination thereof.
 17. The method of claim 1, whereinthe crystalline germanium (Ge) containing layer has a band gap from 0.67eV to 0.80 eV.